Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining global popularity, facilitating the transition to a new electric future. Introduced as environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional vehicles, various types of EVs—including battery, hybrid, plug-in, and fuel-cell models—are projected to make up half of all automobiles produced after 2030.1
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EVs are up to three times more energy-efficient than internal combustion engines.2 However, questions remain about their overall sustainability. However, several environmental concerns are associated with the production (resource requirements), operation (electricity consumption for charging), and recycling (battery disposal) of EVs.1
This article explores the environmental bearing of EV manufacturing, operation, and end-of-life considerations.
Environmental Impact of EV Production
EV production involves several stages, from sourcing raw materials to vehicle assembly. Among these stages, metal and mineral extraction, component production, and the assembly of all parts (excluding the engine and drivetrain) result in CO2 emissions comparable to those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs).1
ICEVs generate about 60 % lower CO2 emissions than EVs, primarily due to the high emissions associated with manufacturing batteries, electric motors, and controllers. Battery manufacturing alone accounts for 35-41 % of the global warming potential of EVs during production.1
The transition to EVs is expected to significantly increase the global demand for lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other minerals necessary for battery production. The extraction processes for these raw materials are energy-intensive, and the supply chain for lithium-ion batteries is unstable due to the uneven global distribution of these minerals, influenced by geopolitical and economic factors.1
To mitigate the environmental impact of EV production, manufacturers are adopting sustainable practices. A recent study in Sustainable Development reviewed modular electric vehicle platforms (MEVPs) used by three European automobile manufacturers as a novel product architecture.
MEVPs aim to improve production efficiency while meeting environmental regulations.3 These platforms consist of compatible units, electric driving architectures, and modular batteries that can be adapted to various vehicles, reducing energy consumption by using multifunctional materials or extra-thin batteries and simplifying disassembly and recycling.3
EV Usage and Emissions
EVs do not produce emissions during operation. However, the electricity required to charge their batteries raises environmental concerns.
Electricity can be generated from renewable sources (such as hydroelectric plants, wind power, and photovoltaic farms) and non-renewable sources (such as coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear power). The share of each source varies by country, depending on factors like fossil fuel availability and local topography. Thus, clean energy availability is highly variable across the countries where EVs are in use.1
EV charging increases a country’s total electricity demand.1 A case study published in Frontiers in Environmental Science investigated the impact of rising EV adoption in China. It highlighted that amplified EV usage considerably eased gasoline utilization but increased coal-based power consumption, transferring emissions and air pollution sources from transportation to the electricity industry instead of lowering emissions.2
In addition, the grid generation profiles of different provinces revealed important regional heterogeneity of EVs’ environmental impact, being more severe in the regions reliant on coal power. As a spatial spillover effect, emissions were shifted from net power importers to exporting regions.2
Since the environmental advantages of EVs vary with local pollution and regulations, the potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions depends on the widespread generation of clean electricity.1,2
Sustainable Battery Manufacturing: Industry 4.0 Solutions
End-of-Life Considerations and Recycling
At the end of their life cycle, EVs are dismantled, and their parts are either disposed of or recycled. This process aims to reduce waste and the demand for new raw materials and energy. Materials recovered from end-of-life vehicles include ferrous metals (71 %), glass (3 %), plastics (8 %), rubber (5 %), and light metals (7 %).1
By 2025, over 1.3 million tons of EV batteries are expected to go out of service, posing pollution and resource wastage challenges. Battery recycling depends on the battery type and requires specific methods for effective collection and disposal.1
Recycling steel, aluminum, and cathode material from batteries can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 61 %, 13 %, and 20 %, respectively, over an EV’s life cycle. Additionally, battery recycling can help reduce the demand for critical raw materials like lithium and nickel. Recycled metals could fulfill 5.2-11.3 % of this demand, mitigating the risk of depletion of nickel, cobalt, and lithium reserves by 2050.1
Innovative second-life solutions for EV batteries are being developed. For example, BMW Group UK has partnered with Off Grid Energy to repurpose retired batteries from Mini and BMW electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles as mobile power units. This process involves dismantling batteries to the module or cell level. However, this process is expensive and labor-intensive.1
Future Outlooks
Sustainable practices throughout the supply chain are essential to ensure the environmental benefits of EVs. An article in the World Electric Vehicle Journal proposed a multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) technique to evaluate the green supply chain management (GSCM) performance of EVs. Fuzzy TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarities to Ideal Solution) was used to analyze and rate GSCM practices, helping decision-makers prioritize environmental, social, and economic sustainability in EV manufacturing.4
Greening the EV sector involves waste minimization, energy-efficient production, ethical sourcing, biodegradable packaging, supplier cooperation, supply chain transparency, stakeholder involvement, and life cycle assessment. Novel technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and the Internet of Things can be combined with GSCM approaches to enhance efficiency, transparency, and sustainability in EV supply chains.4
A rapid transition to EVs alone cannot ensure emission reductions and environmental benefits. Efforts across various sectors, including power, industry, buildings, and land use, are crucial to mitigating the negative implications of electromobility. Cohesive policies and metrics are required globally to enable the decarbonization of EVs.2
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References and Further Reading
Guzek, M., Jackowski, J., Jurecki, RS., Szumska, EM., Zdanowicz, P., Żmuda, M. (2024). Electric Vehicles—An Overview of Current Issues—Part 1—Environmental Impact, Source of Energy, Recycling, and Second Life of Battery. Energies. doi.org/10.3390/en17010249
Lu, P., Hamori, S., Sun, L., Tian, S. (2024). Does the electric vehicle industry help achieve sustainable development goals?—evidence from China. Frontiers in Environmental Science. doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1276382
Lampón, JF. (2022). Efficiency in design and production to achieve sustainable development challenges in the automobile industry: Modular electric vehicle platforms. Sustainable Development. doi.org/10.1002/sd.2370
Althaqafi, T. (2023). Cultivating Sustainable Supply Chain Practises in Electric Vehicle Manufacturing: A MCDM Approach to Assessing GSCM Performance. World Electric Vehicle Journal. doi.org/10.3390/wevj14100290
